While last year’s 80th anniversary was a powerful milestone, this year’s observance still holds its own profound significance as one of the remaining anniversaries where we can still honour and hear firsthand accounts from the dwindling number of courageous veterans who lived through those extraordinary hours. Soon, D-Day will transition from living memory to solely the pages of history – now is the time to listen, learn and remember. 

From solemn ceremonies in Sainte-Mère-Église, Carentan, and Utah Beach, to the vibrant D-Day Festival Normandy along the coastline, and a special weekend celebration at the RAF Museum London – commemorations will honour their sacrifice. 

Explore the events of Operation Overlord with our specially curated documentaries

Here is History Hit’s film of D-Day As It Happened:

Sign up to watch

You can also listen to our collection of interviews with D-Day veterans

Gain deeper insights into the stories and strategies that shaped this prodigious day with our extensive collection of articles

To get started, why not read our list of 82 Fascinating Facts About D-Day or view our D-Day in Pictures: Dramatic Photos of the Normandy Landings.

Bird’s-eye view of landing craft, barrage balloons, and allied troops landing in Normandy, France on D-Day

Image Credit: US Library of Congress

Sign up to watch

In History Hit’s new documentary, The Road to Magna Carta, Dan Snow and Professor Michael Livingstone explore the seismic shifts in medieval power that culminated in one of history’s most pivotal moments.

In this gripping first episode, Professor Michael Livingston heads to France to explore the continental side of the Magna Carta story. His exploration begins in 1214, a year before Magna Carta’s sealing, with the pivotal Battle of Bouvines. This wasn’t merely a clash of armies; it was the decisive moment that shattered English power in Europe and, crucially, brought King John to his knees at home.

What led to the Battle of Bouvines, and why was it so crucial to Magna Carta’s origin?

King John: A reign on the brink

King John ascended the throne in 1199, inheriting the vast Angevin Empire – a sprawling dominion across England, parts of Ireland and Wales, and over half of France. This formidable inheritance, built by his father Henry II and fortified by a strategic marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, made England’s king one of Europe’s most powerful figures. Land was wealth, and the empire’s extensive territories fuelled royal coffers and enriched England’s barons, who held lucrative interests across France.

However, this power stirred bitter resentment, particularly from the shrewd and ambitious King Philippe II of France. As medieval historian Dan Jones explains, Philippe was systematically transforming the French monarchy into a dominant force. Alarmed by the English king’s growing influence, Philippe resolved to dismantle the Angevin Empire.

The loss of Normandy

Henry II’s death in 1189 seemed a golden opportunity for Philippe, but Henry’s heir, Richard the Lionheart, was a formidable military leader. Philippe waited. His chance came in 1199 when Richard was killed while on military campaign, paving the way for his less astute brother, John, to become king. Though John initially secured peace through the Treaty of Le Goulet, he effectively conceded that most of his French lands were merely held from the French Crown, ceding vital strategic control.  

Normandy, with the River Seine linking Paris to the sea, was crucial to Philippe’s ambitions. He soon accused John of violating their agreements, setting his sights on the gateway to Normandy: the formidable Chateau Gaillard. Built by Richard the Lionheart, this cutting-edge fortress, perched 90 metres above the Seine, was a symbol of English power. 

But John gravely underestimated Philippe’s resolve. After a gruelling nine-month siege, John’s desperate attempt to relieve the castle failed. In March 1204, Chateau Gaillard fell. Dr Caroline Burt emphasises, this was a “total disaster” for John’s reputation, eroding confidence and signalling the irretrievable loss of Normandy. By 1205, the once-mighty Angevin Empire was a mere shadow of its former self. 

Chateau Gaillard

Image Credit: History Hit

The cost of ambition: John’s war chest

John vowed to reclaim his lost lands. His decade-long obsession with regaining his continental possessions fundamentally reshaped his governance of England. As Professor David Carpenter highlights, John spent ten years meticulously raising a “great war chest,” tripling his revenues to finance a new campaign and secure crucial allies.

“If you want to know why there’s Magna Carta,” Carpenter states, “it’s because the tax bill has tripled in 10 years.”

This unprecedented financial burden, combined with the barons’ own losses of French lands, pushed England’s nobility to breaking point. Their frustration mounted with a king who had lost them prestige and income, and who seemed incapable of reversing his fortunes. John knew diplomacy wouldn’t suffice; he needed a decisive military victory.

The fateful alliance and the Battle of Bouvines

By 1214, John had meticulously assembled a grand alliance of European powers hostile to Philippe, including the Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV. This was John’s last, desperate gamble, a monumental investment that strained his relations with his barons to their absolute limit. Only victory could save him.

The strategic plan was to encircle Philippe and trap him in Paris. While John’s initial advance into Angers went well, a confrontation with Philippe’s son, Louis, forced John into a disastrous retreat. This left him stranded on the west coast, notably absent from the decisive battle that would define his reign.

That battle unfolded in Bouvines, a small town in north-east France. Philippe’s forces clashed with the coalition army in a brutal, bloody affair. Despite their size and funding, the allied forces were fractured, lacking common language and unified leadership. Philippe exploited these divisions, systematically fending off uncoordinated attacks. Soon, alliance leaders began to surrender. Philippe had secured a resounding victory, solidifying his status as “Philippe Augustus” and establishing France as the dominant power in Europe.

The Battle of Bouvines, by Horace Vernet

Image Credit: Museum of the History of France / Public Domain

The unavoidable road to Magna Carta

For John, defeat at Bouvines, even in absentia, was catastrophic. As Dan Jones powerfully explains, “to lose a battle like Bouvines… is a direct expression of God’s opinion about King John, and God’s opinion is that King John does not deserve to prosper.”

Dr Caroline Burt emphasises that Bouvines was the critical catalyst: “You can’t really envisage Magna Carta happening without something like Bouvines. It opens up the political space for opposition to gain traction.” The barons, bled dry and utterly disillusioned, recognised that John’s unchecked authority, particularly regarding taxation, could not continue. They had to draw “some red lines.”

John had lost everything – his lands, his money, and crucially, the trust of his people. Less than a year later, with nowhere left to turn, King John was forced by his barons to seal the Magna Carta.

The Road to Magna Carta, Episode 1 is available to watch now:

Join acclaimed Medieval Historian Dr Helen Carr as she delves deep into Edward II’s extraordinary and chaotic reign in History Hit’s documentary, Edward II: Worst King of England?

Helen starts by revealing myth-busting depictions of Edward II which portray a king serious about his role, even leading armies into battle – far from the effeminate figure later popularised by Victorian artists. So, where did it all go wrong, and why has Edward II’s image been so skewed over time?

Born in 1284 and heir to the formidable Edward I, Edward II inherited a vast kingdom. After his father’s death, 23 year old Edward looked for help from his closest friends, including Piers Gaveston, a man with whom Edward shared an intense close connection with, possibly sexual. Helen explores this bond, and how Edward’s giving of titles, attention and money to Gaveston after recalling him from exile in France alienated many of his traditional supporters amongst the nobility who saw this behaviour as inappropriate.

“All of these things were things that the old noble families of England were expecting to come to them… If the job of king of England in the 14th century is in part a management position, Edward is an absolutely terrible manager.” says historian Dr Kit Heyam.

Edward’s actions had ignited aristocratic fury, setting him on a collision course with England’s powerful aristocracy almost from the very moment of his ascension in 1307.

Dr Helen Carr with Dr Paul Dryburgh, principal record specialist at The National Archives, during filming. They are looking at a Charter drawn up by Edward II (less than a month after he became king), bestowing on Piers Gaveston the Earldom of Cornwall.

Image Credit: History Hit

Through rare illuminated charters, historical records, and expert analysis, Helen also delves into the dramatic power struggles that defined Edward’s reign: the imposing of the ‘Ordinances’ to curb his power, the ruthless machinations of figures like Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, and the infamous Battle of Bannockburn against Robert the Bruce, a devastating defeat that shattered English authority in Scotland.

Dr Helen Carr also uncovers the complexities of Edward’s other relationships, including that of his sometimes successful, sometimes deadly, marriage in 1308 to the 12-year-old Isabella of France and the birth of the future Edward III.

Sign up to watch

As Edward’s reign progressed and with Gavetson gone, a new set of favourites emerged – the Despensers. Helen speaks to writer and historian Kathryn Warner who explains how subsequently “We see this real break in Edward’s character. Earlier on with Gaveston he had been a much nicer and perhaps kinder and gentler individual… but then later he falls for Hugh Despenser in whatever way, who was a coercive manipulative type and Edward’s personality just changes completely.”

The Despensers’ influence, particularly that of Hugh Despenser the Younger, pushed Edward towards tyranny and ultimately, alienation from all who cared for him, including his formidable queen, Isabella. Helen goes on to chart Isabella’s transformation from loyal wife to “She-Wolf of France,” as she, allied with the exiled Roger Mortimer, orchestrated a dramatic coup against the Despensers that would lead to Edward’s downfall.

Dr Helen Carr at Edward II’s tomb at Gloucester Cathedral

Image Credit: History Hit

And then, the mystery of Edward II’s death – was it the infamous, horrific fate of the red-hot poker, or something far more ambiguous? Helen dissects the origins of this enduring gruesome myth of Edward’s probable murder, revealing how later chronicles and plays sensationalised his demise.

Edward II: Worst King of England? is an exploration of power, loyalty, betrayal, and reputation. Was Edward truly England’s worst king, or simply a complex monarch caught between tradition and his own progressive (and often disastrous) instincts? Watch and decide for yourself.

Sign up to watch

In Episode 1 of The Secrets of Stone Age Ireland, History Hit’s Ancients expert, Tristan Hughes, delves into the complex’s enigmatic passage tombs, exploring their breathtaking rock art – carvings that predate Celtic culture by millennia – and investigates the myths and beliefs that have echoed through this sacred landscape for over 5,000 years.

Newgrange: a Stone Age cathedral?

Nestled by the sacred River Boyne, an ancient highway for Ireland’s earliest inhabitants, Brú na Bóinne holds some of the most magnificent and densely located rock art in the prehistoric world.

While archaeologists have identified 150 monuments in the valley – with 40 still visible today – it’s the world-famous passage tombs of Newgrange, Knowth, and Dowth that dominate, dating back to the Neolithic period (the last era of the Stone Age) around 4,000 BC. This was a pivotal time when farming transformed societies, and the fertile Boyne Valley became an ideal home for Ireland’s earliest farmers.

Passage tombs were stone burial chambers, accessed by long passages, and covered with large mounds of earth and stone cairns. They have been found across Europe, but at Brú na Bóinne one stands apart: Newgrange. So significant is its scale and sophistication that some archaeologists consider it the Stone Age equivalent of a cathedral, built on the highest point of a ridge, clearly intended to be seen by all who travelled the Boyne.

A discovery older than some pyramids

Newgrange was uncovered by accident in 1699 by local landowner Charles Campbell, whose workers unwittingly uncovered its entrance during a building project. People soon ventured to Newgrange to examine the site, and later, organic building material found within the tomb dated it to 3,200 BC, making Newgrange older than Stonehenge (3,000BC) and the Great Pyramid of Giza (c2,600 BC). 

Sign up to watch

A masterpiece of engineering and belief

Originally built more than 5,000 years ago, the true grandeur of Newgrange was restored through a meticulous archaeological restoration in the 1960s and 70s, led by Professor Michael O’Kelly. His team’s work offers the closest glimpse we have into Newgrange’s original appearance over 5 millennia ago.

Standing 11 metres high, 85 metres across, and covering an acre, the restored mound is a testament to extraordinary ancient engineering. At least 450 slabs of stone form the inner tomb, weighing over 200,000 tonnes, encircled by 97 massive kerbstones and a stunning facade of white quartz. 

Tristan Hughes filming at the entrance passage and entrance stone at Newgrange, which features the triple spiral motif

Image Credit: History Hit

The Brú na Bóinne visitor centre has faithfully reconstructed the tomb’s 19 metre-long passage, which narrows and deepens to guide visitors into its core. Here, three great recesses cut into the rock are thought to be ancient resting places. The tomb also holds captivating rock art, including the iconic triple spiral motif. Originally thought to be a Celtic symbol, this design was etched into the stone thousands of years before the Celts arrived in Ireland, and is said to symbolise the harmony of balance and a deep connection to the spiritual realm.

Even the stones themselves tell a story. One of the defining features of Newgrange are its 97 colossal kerbstones that form its perimeter, some intricately decorated. These great rocks were quarried 25km away at Clogherhead in County Louth. This area, where continents once collided 400 million years ago, offered unique vertical rock formations.

Archaeology suggests the builders of Newgrange, using only basic tools, extracted these massive stones – each weighing roughly 3 tonnes – and loaded them onto barges for transport. An additional 300 stones were sourced from here for the tomb’s passage and central chamber, demonstrating a monumental feat of logistics and labour. 

The construction of Newgrange was an epic undertaking, estimated to have taken over 300 people 30 years to complete. It’s believed an intricate scaffolding and ramp system was used, with its remarkable roof created using corbelling – a sophisticated technique where stones are gradually angled inward, locking together to cover the central space.

The revetment and kerbstones at Newgrange

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / CC / Daniel Stockman

The Winter Solstice alignment

Perhaps the most breathtaking secret of Newgrange lies in its deliberate astronomical alignment. As Dr. Muiris O’Sullivan, a Newgrange expert and archaeologist from University College Dublin, explains to Tristan, the monument is “famously aligned onto the midwinter rising sun.” The axis of this alignment runs precisely from the front stone to the back stone.

Above the entrance, an opening known as the ‘roofbox’ allows a clever phenomenon to occur. On the shortest day of the year (21 December) and a few days before and after, the rising sun sends a direct beam of light through this roofbox. For 17 minutes, the ancient chamber is bathed in the golden glow of the winter sun. This precision engineering points to a profound ritualistic or spiritual purpose, the exact nature of which remains unknown. 

This tomb, created by highly skilled individuals and used repeatedly throughout the Neolithic period, served as a sacred space for the elite. As Dr. O’Sullivan notes, “Presumably the people buried in there were the elite of some form. We know that there were male and female, and various age groups…seeming to suggest family rather than individual prestige”. 

Eager to delve deeper into Ireland’s ancient past? Discover more about Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth’s passage tombs in Episode 1 of History Hit’s Prehistoric Ireland: Secrets of the Stone Age.

Then, join Tristan Hughes as he continues his journey into Ireland’s Bronze Age – a golden age of transformation in Episode 2 of Prehistoric Ireland: A Metal Revolution.

Sign up to watch

“We believe it is the only certain piece of surviving gladiatorial equipment from Britain,” Dr Richard Hobbs tells History Hit’s Tristan Hughes, who heads behind the scenes at the British Museum for a special look at the exhibition ‘Gladiators of Britain’ which tours in 2025-2026.

Sign up to watch

The ‘Hawkedon helmet’ is an extraordinary relic of Roman Britain. It may date from the period immediately following the Roman conquest in the 1st century AD. It is similar to helmets identified in Pompeii, and was probably not made in Britain.

It features a broad neck guard and brow ridge, with rivet holes that would match a visor. The brass was possibly tinned, which means it would have shone almost like gold and silver in the sun.

The helmet and other objects including a gladiator figurine, oil lamp shaped like a gladiator’s helmet and a coin depicting the Colosseum feature in a History Hit film presented by Tristan Hughes.

A bone figurine of a gladiator found in Colchester forms, alongside over 10 identified amphitheatres, evidence of gladiators in Britain. For a time Colchester was the capital of Roman Britain.

A figurine of a gladiator carved from bone.

Image Credit: History Hit

“When Britain became part of the Empire, it brought with it all those things that we associate with Rome, the games being part of that,” explains curator Dr Richard Hobbs.

The figurine depicts a heavily-armed murmillo type gladiator. He wields a shield which itself depicts a gladiator defeating opponents, and either a short sword (gladius) or palm frond.

Another item, a bronze coin (sestertius) provides a fascinating contemporary look at the Colosseum in Rome. It is bigger and thicker than a British 2 pence, and on its face depicts the legendary’s arena’s three levels of arcades and its top level.

Its detail is fine. Not only can you spot small statues on the Colosseum, but also two gladiators in combat in the arena itself.

A coin depicting the Colosseum in Rome.

Image Credit: History Hit

“You can see where all of these little sticks are pointing out,” explains curator Dr Anna Willi. “These are wooden poles that held the awnings that could have been put on on a hot day and they were operated by soldiers from the Roman fleet.”

Why is the Colosseum on a coin? A similar coin was issued when the amphitheatre was inaugurated by emperor Titus in 80 AD. But this coin was issued in 223 AD by Severus Alexander, whose portrait is on the reverse of the coin. He had completed repairs on the Colosseum after it had been struck by lightning and damaged. This coin celebrated his work. He is even inserted as a small figure standing beside the arena.

Sign up to watch

However experts using modern technologies have now “recreated” King Richard III’s voice, complete with Yorkshire accent and medieval pronunciation, which features in the History Hit documentary, A Voice for Richard III, available 21 November.

Sign up to watch

After first being exhibited at York Theatre Royal, the digital avatar developed by Face Lab at Liverpool John Moores University and the new voice feature in an original documentary presented by historian Matt Lewis, who explores its creation and significance.

“The voice for Richard project has set out to give Richard back his own voice,” says Matt Lewis, co-host of the Gone Medieval podcast. “This is a project that brings together history with technology, art, science, language and one of my favourite historical personalities, King Richard III.”

Matt Lewis speaks with Yvonne Morley-Chisolm

Image Credit: History Hit / A Voice for King Richard III

“This is as close as we can get to being in the room in the fifteenth century when a king speaks. I can’t wait for the world to see the culmination of ten years of hard work and innovation.”

Expert voice teacher and vocal coach Yvonne Morley-Chisolm embarked on the research project with the aim of creating a literal voice for the long-dead historical figure. 10 years of work contributed to the final reconstruction, which involved research in the field of Historical Human Reconstruction and experts from the UK and abroad.

“We are bringing a long dead king back to a kind of ‘life’, says Morley-Chisolm. “We are learning more about the real man in doing so.”

“Since we produced the facial reconstruction of Richard III in 2012, we have dreamt about bringing him alive, to see him move and speak his own words,” says Professor Carolin Wilkinson, a leading cranio-facial identification expert.

“The result has exceeded our expectations and represents the most authentic and realistic portrait of this great king, based on all evidence available.”

Find out more about the remarkable project to give King Richard III a voice by signing up to History Hit.

Sign up to watch

In the latest History Hit documentary, Dan Snow journeys to the so-called ‘Weeping Glen’ to examine an astonishing new archaeological discovery: a hoard of coins likely hidden during one of the most shocking events in British history.

Sign up to watch

In the first-ever film to delve into the discovery, The Scottish Massacre: Unearthing the Secrets of Glencoe, Dan meets archaeologists from the University of Glasgow and National Trust for Scotland, who are currently excavating the village of Glencoe. He explores what life was like here for the MacDonalds and why the Massacre of Glencoe took place.

Dan Snow and Lucy Ankers in The Scottish Massacre: Unearthing the Secrets of Glencoe

Image Credit: History Hit

Was it a revenge attack instigated by clan rivalry? Or, with a new monarch on the throne of England and Scotland in the person of King William III, were there greater forces at play?

The hoard was found hidden beneath the hearthstone in the summer house belonging to the clan chieftain of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, Alasdair Maclain. The 36 coins were located inside a small pot identified by student archaeologist Lucy Ankers, and may have been hidden by the MacDonald clan in the days leading up to the massacre—or even as they fled from government troops.

New light on a key moment in Scottish history

Each coin holds clues to the personal history and connections of MacIain, with several originating from regions he travelled to, such as France. One coin, depicting Stuart King Charles II and pierced with a hole, may even signify Jacobite allegiance, as it was likely worn as a necklace during a time of intense political division in the Scottish Highlands.

“It’s so exciting when a new archaeological discovery ties in with famous historic events,” says Dan Snow. “Contemporary accounts tell us some details about the Glencoe Massacre, but many questions remain. So, to hold something tangible from those terrible events, a pot of treasured coins tucked away for safekeeping and then forgotten for centuries, is extraordinary and brings you so much closer to this notorious and important story.”

“This remarkable find sheds new light on a key moment in Scottish history.”

The documentary showcases the ongoing research that the discovery has inspired. History Hit filmed on-site with the archaeology team and historic coin expert Jesper Ericsson, revealing how analysis of the hoard provides new insights into the massacre and life in 17th-century Glencoe.

“This discovery offers an amazing insight into the lives of Scottish Highland clan chiefs in the 17th century and their connections and negotiation of status,” explains Dr. Eddie Stewart, who co-led the dig.

The Glencoe Hoard

Image Credit: Featured in The Scottish Massacre: Unearthing the Secrets of Glencoe by History Hit

“For the first time, this documentary explores what these coins mean to the story not only of Glencoe and the 1692 massacre but also the personal travels and mobility of the Highland nobility,” says Stewart. “Our team of experts has brought to life a moment in time with the burial of this hoard and over a century of collecting practice!”

Glencoe lives revealed

The pot of coins hidden under the fireplaces suggests a story of panic, death and loss, adds Professor Michael Given. “What’s extraordinary about Glencoe is how a single dramatic moment in history can be captured in these everyday objects,” he says.

“The archaeological evidence is also revealing a deep connection between the people of Glencoe and their land. When you understand this relationship you can better comprehend the true magnitude of the trauma they endured when their world was so violently upended in 1692 and their homes abandoned.”

Beyond the hoard, the film explores new findings from excavations in the settlement of Achnacon, including a beautifully recreated turf-walled house designed by the National Trust for Scotland to resemble 17th-century Highland homes. They vividly reveal the lives of Glencoe’s residents at the time of the massacre.

Sign up to watch

In Agincourt: The Real Story, historical conflict analyst Dr Mike Livingston journeys through northern France in the footsteps of Henry V and his army, from Harfleur to Agincourt.

Sign up to watch

Livingston argues that the traditionally recognised site of the battle incorrectly locates the English position in the French position. Additionally, he wonders if Henry’s strategy alone won him the battle – or whether forces beyond his control proved pivotal.

In the battle, Henry arranged his archers into low long wings either side of his centre, where his dismounted men-at-arms stood between further groups of archers.

“As the French approached, they would be shot at from both sides while the surrounding woods and stakes would prevent his archers from being overrun,” Livingston explains.

Livingston reconstructs the battle with Dr Marina Viallon, medieval arms and armour expert. Ultimately, it saw Henry win a total victory against the French, losing just hundreds of men compared with the thousands of French losses.

Although the French men-at-arms facing them would have been eager and fully protected, wearing a combination of mail and plate armour, and the distinctive pointed helmet known as the pig’s nose bascinet, they had a problem.

“The Dauphin had not yet arrived on the battlefield,” explains Viallon. “Instead the French were being led by various dukes of the realm, and they didn’t always get along. So a lot of other factions were actually fighting for power around the king and so you have four or five different leaders in this army.”

This was their biggest problem, says Viallon. “The English had a clear and strong leader. And the French basically had too many cooks in the kitchen, but no chef.”

Dr Mike Livingston meets with master arrowsmith and fletcher Will Sherman in Agincourt: The Real Story

Image Credit: History Hit

The result was confused command, and commitment to a foiled plan even as conditions on the battlefield turned muddy and difficult.

In this light, victory at Agincourt was not a foregone conclusion for the English, but almost a fluke. “Henry did not even want a fight,” says Livingston. “He tried his best to avoid it but the French caught up to him.”

In Agincourt: The Real Story, Livingston explores the vital role of Henry’s archers, and works with master arrowsmith and fletcher Will Sherman to explore the finely honed technology that helped win the day.

He also investigates whether Henry was seeking battle or running away, exploring whether illness among his troops motivated a return home.

Livingston considers how Agincourt permeated as a tale of bravery and triumph against all the odds, inspiring Shakespeare and thereafter everyone from Churchill to Kenneth Branagh.

Sign up to History Hit to watch original documentaries and ad-free listening to History Hit podcasts.

Sign up to watch

The latest mini series coming to Dan Snow’s History Hit will investigate the ingenuity and cruelty of ancient Roman entertainment. Dan and his guests will explore the brutal weapons and bloodsports of the arena, and the fierce power plays that unfolded from the Roman emperor’s box.

The mini series will also explore the true story of the most famous gladiator of all: Spartacus. In 73 BC, the gladiator Spartacus led a rebellion with an army of escaped slaves, resisting legions for several years. When they succumbed, they were said to have been crucified in their masses.

Roman mosaic from 3rd century AD, National Archaeological Museum in Madrid, Spain

Image Credit: PRISMA ARCHIVO / Alamy Stock Photo

With the release of Ridley Scott’s next historical epic, turn to Dan Snow’s History Hit to bust some myths on what a day at the arena would really be like.

Scott’s hugely anticipated movie Gladiator II picks up two decades on from the (fictional) events of the 2000 original, with Paul Mescal and Pedro Pascal featuring in its bloody tale of vengeance.

Join Dan on an adventure to ancient Rome on 10 November for the mini series ‘Gladiators’.

Sign up to History Hit today for ad-free listening plus original documentaries exclusively on History Hit.

Sign up for ad-free listening

European artists played an important role in shaping the image of the witch, transforming it into a powerful cultural symbol. In the History Hit film The King’s Curse: Scotland’s Notorious Witch Trials, art historian Dr Catriona Murray explains how these depictions evolved.

Sign up to watch

The broomstick, for example, is evident in a medieval manuscript which identifies two women who are religious heretics. The broomstick is a classic icon now associated with witches, but why is it included here? “I suspect they are acting as phalluses,” explains Murray. “They are empowering these women and they are riding them. On another level they provide flight, and that’s one of the key characteristics of witches, that they fly to their Sabbath.”

Albrecht Dürer’s later, memorable depiction of witches resembles how we often think of witches today. “This is the hag, the crone. And one of the other things that’s very interesting about it is that she’s naked,” says Murray. “There’s a real focus on the gross nakedness of this old woman.” Witchcraft was often linked with ugliness, and Dürer’s witch has aged features and withered limbs.

The Witch, Albrecht Dürer, circa 1500

Additionally, Dürer depicts her riding a goat, an animal particularly linked with the devil. She does so backwards to signify that the natural order is upset. “There’s a feeling of real [discomfort] here, that things do not happen as you expect them to happen.”

“This is the subversion of what the feminine should be doing, that there’s this patriarchal anxiety going on here,” says Murray.

The growing fear of witches in the 16th century included increased anxiety about them joining together in a coven. Increasingly witches were depicted in a group, as in a painting of the witch’s sabbath by Frans Francken. Francken picked up his brush at a time when the Spanish Netherlands experienced a growing panic about witches. He portrays witches of different social orders engaged in lewd dancing, spells and incantations, and also reading grimoires, which links female literacy and knowledge with witchcraft.

Heinrich Kramer’s Malleus Maleficarum, ‘Hammer of Witches’, had already provided instruction on how to catch witches. Kramer argued that women were particularly prone to witchcraft. He wrote accounts of their alleged powers and habits, including the harvesting of male organs and depositing them in birds’ nests, “where they move themselves like living members and eat oats and corn”.

In The King’s Curse: Scotland’s Notorious Witch Trials, Maddy Pelling and Anthony Delaney investigate one of Europe’s bloodiest witch hunts: Scotland’s North Berwick Witch trials of 1591.

In this extraordinary case, fears escalated all the way up the social hierarchy to the king himself, James VI. A wild storm in the North Sea had nearly killed James and his new wife Anne of Denmark, fuelling his fascination with the intellectual study of demonology. A maelstrom of terror brought together the king’s paranoia of a conspiracy against him with local rivalries and misfortune. It twisted together the fates of individuals from maidservants to magistrates in the hunt for scapegoats.

Anthony and Maddy host After Dark: Myths, Misdeeds & the Paranormal, a History Hit podcast.

Sign up to watch The King’s Curse and to listen ad-free to After Dark.

Sign up to watch